Self-Handicapping and Protecting the Ego at a Cost

Self-Handicapping and Protecting the Ego at a Cost Theories Social Psychology Print Self-Handicapping and Protecting the Ego at a Cost By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on February 24, 2017 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on July 26, 2019 Martin Leigh / Getty Images More in Theories Social Psychology Behavioral Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology Self-handicapping involves engaging in behaviors that sabotage your chances of success. Why would people do things that might make them more likely to fail? We all want to feel good about ourselves, but researchers have found that we sometimes go so far as to hurt our chances of success in order to avoid taking responsibilities for our failures. When faced with an important exam, for example, students might stay out all night to avoid studying. Then when they do poorly, they can blame their poor scores on their friends for keeping them out late rather than their own lack of intelligence. Simply put, self-handicapping allows people to find an outside source to blame for possible failures. While this can be an effective strategy for protecting self-esteem, it can understandably have a significantly negative impact on success. Lets take a closer look at why self-handicapping happens and the potential outcomes of this behavior. Why Do People Self-Handicap? Psychologists have found that we all have a strong need to blame our failures on outside forces while taking personal credit for our successes. This behavior protects our self-esteem, but it can also make us do things that actually make us less likely to succeed. This tendency is known as self-handicapping, defined as a self-sabotaging action or choice that prevents people from taking personal responsibility for outcomes. Essentially, people create obstacles so that any possible failures can then be blamed on these outside forces. Failure can lead to discomfort when people realize that their own lack of skill or preparation led to the outcome. By engaging in actions that undermine possible success, people avoid having to face the truth and accept their own deficiencies. There are many different forms of self-handicapping. Sometimes this behavior can be fairly innocuous, but in some instances, it can be much more serious. In some cases, it might even drive people to engage in potentially dangerous behavior. For example, students might procrastinate on their homework or put off studying until the very last minute. Athletes might skip practice or stay up late the night before a big game. In some cases, people might engage in more dangerous forms of self-handicapping such as abusing drugs and alcohol. Researchers have suggested that self-handicapping can be linked to what is known as the self-serving bias, in which people claim personal credit for success but blame outside forces for their failures. Imagine, for example, that you have been preparing to compete in your very first marathon. Youve been following a training schedule and eating a healthy diet, but as race day approaches, you find yourself doubting your ability to successfully reach the finish line. In the weeks and days leading up to the big race, you find yourself skipping your training sessions and binge eating junk food. When the day finally arrives to compete in the marathon, you find yourself feeling sluggish and out of shape. As a result of these self-handicapping behaviors, you are able to blame your inability to finish the race on being out of shape or bloated rather than your possible lack of ability. Research on Self-Handicapping The phenomenon was first described by researchers Stephen Berglas and Edward Jones in a 1978 study that involved randomly assigning students to complete anagrams, some of which were solvable and some of which were not. Afterward, all of the students were told they had done well. This feedback was clearly unsettling and confusing to the participants who had been given the unsolvable anagrams. They were told they had done well but had no idea how or why they had. “These are the people who are told they are brilliant, without knowing how that inference is derived,” said Dr. Berglas explained to The New York Times in 2009. The volunteers were then asked if they would want to take either a performance-enhancing or performance-inhibiting drug before they took another test. Of the participants, a whopping 70 percent  of those who had been given the unsolvable anagrams opted to take the performance-inhibiting drug, compared to just 13 percent  of those who had been given the solvable anagrams. Why would some choose the drug designed to impair their performance on a test? These results suggest that when people are confident in their abilities to perform a task, they would prefer to be given something that would help them perform even better. Those who are unsure of their abilities, however, are more likely to want the drug that will hurt their performance, thus giving them an external source to blame for their possible failures. The Effects The purpose of all this self-sabotage is to protect the ego and self-esteem, and experts have found that it does actually work. People with high self-esteem have been shown to engage in more self-handicapping. For many people, these behaviors happen almost automatically. We come up with excuses for failure before weve even tried, but we often do so unconsciously. While self-handicapping might go a long way in protecting our self-esteem, it can also have serious negative side-effects. If you are placing barriers to success in your path, there is no way that you are giving yourself all the chances you should for achieving your goals. Not only that, by hindering your chances, you are essentially lowering your expectations for yourself both now and in the future. Researcher Sean McCrea has also found that self-handicapping can lead to lower motivation and less incentive to try to succeed in the future. In a series of experiments, he manipulated participants scores on IQ tests. Some participants were given the choice to either prepare for taking the test or to join a no practice group. Those who then received bad scores were more likely to blame their lack of practice, but McCrae also found in later experiments that those who had an excuse for their low scores (i.e., distractions, lack of preparation, etc.) were less motivated to prepare for a future test than those who didnt have an external source to blame. The handicap allowed them to say, All things considered, I actually did pretty well,McCrea told Benedict Carey writing for The New York Times. And there’s no drive to get better. More negative consequences of self-handicapping: Students who engage in self-handicapping report spending less time each week studying.Self-handicappers also tend to have lower grades overall.They are also more likely to use alcohol before engaging in a task.It also hurts social relationships. Self-handicappers always seem to have an excuse, so they are often viewed as whiners. Researchers have found that self-handicappers are rated more negatively by their peers. Self-handicapping can protect the ego, but it comes with significant costs. Placing obstacles to success might provide excuses for failures, but it also makes us more likely to fail. Do you feel good about yourself now or do you give it your all and risk failure? The research suggests that while your self-esteem might take a temporary hit, giving up self-handicapping behaviors might be better for future success.

Effectiveness of Advertisement in Telecom Industry

A PROJECT REPORT On A study on Effectiveness Of Advertisement in telecom industry Submitted to:- B.K.School of Business Management, Gujarat University, Ahmadabad Guided by:- Dr. Prateek Kanchan Submitted By: Sachin chokhawala (1912) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The satiation and euphonies that accompany the success completion of a task would be incomplete without a mention of people who made it possible. So, with immense gratitude, we acknowledge all those, whose guidance and encouragement served as a beacon light and crowned my effort with success. We thank Dr. Prateek kanchan, our faculty and project guide for his valuable guidance and suggestions. Lastly, I would like to thank all those who have†¦show more content†¦Analysis Interpretation |32 | |8 |7. Findings Recommandation |43 | | |7.1 Findings | | | |7.2 Recommandation | | |9 |8. Conclusion | | |10 |Bibliography |51 | |11 |Annexure |52 | EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Management ideas without any action based on them mean nothing. That is why practical experience is vital for any management studies. Theoretical studies in the class room are not sufficient to understand the functioning climate and the real problems coming in the way of management. So, practical exposures are indispensable to such courses. Thus, practical experience acts as a supplement to the classroom studies. This report deals withShow MoreRelatedTitle of the project report Effectiveness of Advertisement in Telecom Industry on consumers with1400 Words   |  6 PagesTitle of the project report Effectiveness of Advertisement in Telecom Industry on consumers with reference to Airtel. Objectives of the study I. To study types of advertisements. II. To study effectiveness of advertisements i.e. on sales, profitability. III. To study the perception of consumers towards the product due to advertisement. IV. To find the ways to make it more effective. Reaserch Methodology Research Design The research design is Descriptive studies. Descriptive studiesRead MoreTHE INFLUENCE OF TV ADVERTISING ON CONSUMER BRAND PREFERENCE Essay2271 Words   |  10 Pagesmarketers are facing challenges in developing effective TV advertisement and thus they have to think beyond informing, educating and facilitating the customers. As competition is increasing, the need for effective marketing communication is growing and marketers are finding new ways to break through the clutter and generate response and action from potential consumers. According to the a survey of Gallup Pakistan, spending on TV advertisement increased throughout year 2009. The top 10 brands advertisedRead MoreSwot Analysis Of Singtel850 Words   |  4 PagesT. (2017). An Exploratory Study of Constructing Measurement Scale of City CCBE (Customer Based Brand Equity). Journal of Communication Science, 17(2),pp. 229-262. Chunying, W. (2013). A study on the delivery of city branding advertisements: City branding advertisement on CCTV, 2007-2010. Journal of Place Management and Development, 6(1), 67-75. Greyser, S. A. (2009). Corporate brand reputation and brand crisis management. Management Decision, 47(4), 590-602. Feng, D.(2017).Representing ordinaryRead MoreThe Attractiveness of Telecommunication Industry in 1998 Ireland1907 Words   |  8 Pagesï » ¿The Attractiveness of Telecommunications Industry in 1998 Ireland The Irish telecommunications industry has been heavily regulated since the 1980s. A state-owned body, Bord Telecom Eireann, being simultaneously the largest employer in the country and the provider of the poorest quality Telecom Systems in Europe, introduced the controls that fundamentally eliminated the competition and created a monopoly. This seemingly new, but propitious industry faced numerous obstacles, as its capital requirementsRead MoreAnalysis Of The Bank s Mobile And Banking Services Platform1491 Words   |  6 Pagesplus many other telecommunications services to more than 8 million subscribers. Equity Bank’s mobile and banking services platform launches a year after it had to deal with a myriad of inquiries from industry regulator, Communications Authority of Kenya, Members of the National Assembly and the industry top watchdog, the Central Bank of Kenya (CBK). The CA later approved use of thin-SIM technology in Kenya, even though there was opposition from competit ors claiming that the technology could compromiseRead MoreAdvertisement And Culture Of The Media1658 Words   |  7 Pages Advertisement and Cultural Transformation in Middle East: In Special Context to Oman Abhishek K. Singh Faculty, Department of Communication Studies, College of Applied Sciences Sultanate of Oman dr.asingh89@gmail.com ______________________________________________________________________________ 1. Introduction In the era of information society, media is playing a very crucial part in everyday lives. It influences both how we see ourselves and society in all perspectives. There are differentRead MoreBrand Audit of Vodafone6449 Words   |  26 Pagescampaign†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.21 7. Campaign Length and Frequency†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.21 8. Rationale behind approach, with justification – ranging from conceptual to empirical†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...22 9. Method of tracking response and effectiveness†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...23 10. Limitations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...27 11. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦27 Appendix B†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..29 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...38 Section One Brand CampaignRead MoreRole of Crm in Telecom Sector 5340 Words   |  22 Pagesâ€Å"Role of CRM in Telecom Sector† Sheetal Singla MBA, Phd* Asst. Professor BGIET, Sangrur Background: This research paper is on the â€Å"Role of CRM in Telecom Sector†. The report begins with the abstract of Role of CRM in Telecom Sector, History of telecom sector the Introduction part. This report also contains the basic marketing strategies used by various telecom service providers.In today’s world of cutthroat competition, it is very essential to not only exist but also to excel in the marketRead Moreâ€Å"Role of Crm in Telecom Sector†5349 Words   |  22 Pagesâ€Å"Role of CRM in Telecom Sector† Sheetal Singla MBA, Phd* Asst. Professor BGIET, Sangrur Background: This research paper is on the â€Å"Role of CRM in Telecom Sector†. The report begins with the abstract of Role of CRM in Telecom Sector, History of telecom sector the Introduction part. This report also contains the basic marketing strategies used by various telecom service providers.In today’s world of cutthroat competition, it is very essential to not only exist but also to excel in the market. Today’sRead MoreComparative Analysis of Vodafone and Airtel Services in Pune Region5708 Words   |  23 Pages |1-2 | |02 |Executive summary |3-5 | |03 |Industry profile |6-10 | |04 |Company profile |11-12 | |05

Theodore A Serial Killer Who Claimed The Lives Of More...

Theodore (Ted) Robert Bundy was a serial killer who claimed the lives of more than 30 women, over the course of a decade (Owen). He was the son of Louise Cowell, who had Bundy on November 24, 1946 in the Elizabeth Lund Home for Unwed Mothers in Vermont (Rule). He was raised in Philadelphia, believing that his maternal grandparents were his parents (Ramsland). Ted and his mother Louise left to Washington State, shortly after arriving, Louise married Johnnie Bundy; who adopted Ted and gave him his famous surname (Ramsland). Ted attended the University of Puget Sound in Washington State and after a year he transferred to University of Washington (Rule). This is where he met Stephanie Brooks, his dream girl (Rule). Stephanie was from a wealthy†¦show more content†¦Even though he committed many crimes, he was formally charged for only four: the attempted kidnapping of Carol DaRonch, the abduction and murder of Caryn Campbell, the Florida State University Chi Omega murders, and th e Kimberly Leach abduction and murder (Rule). Ted Bundy has kidnapped, raped, beaten, sodomized, and/ or strangled: eleven women in Washington State, eight in Utah, four in Colorado, three in Florida, two in Oregon, two in Idaho, and one in California (Rule). Of all these victims only 20 were identified, five of which survived the attacks, and numerous other attempts at victims that we don’t know a numerical value (Rule). On November 8, 1974 in Murray, Utah, Bundy kidnapped Carol DaRonch by impersonating a police officer and telling DaRonch that someone attempted to break into her car and she needed to ride with him to the Police Station to fill out paperwork (Rule). During the trip, DaRonch realized that Bundy took a route that did not lead to the station, prompting Bundy to pull over; he tried to handcuff DaRonch, but failed by locking the handcuffs to the same wrists and she was able to run away from Bundy (Rule). Later on that day, Bundy abducted Debra Kent, a seventeen y ear old, who was picking up her sibling in from a play (Rule). Outside the auditorium that Debra was taken, police found a handcuff key that unlocked Carol DaRonch handcuffs (Rule). During

Module 3 Free Essays

Forecasting Highline Financial Service offers three types of service to its client. Managing partner, Freddie Mack would like to arrange the financial and staffing for the upcoming year. The data has shown that there is fluctuation with regards to each service the company offers Mr. We will write a custom essay sample on Module 3 or any similar topic only for you Order Now Mack would like to estimate future demand for services, keeping in mind that advertising, promotion and competition will remain constant at current rate. The data covers the company’s last eight quarters (2 years) and does not include any information with regards to seasonal trend. The fluctuation of demand in each service is a concern that needs to be addressed. Preparation of the most efficient plan of action for the upcoming year is a key to profit maximization. Highline Financial Services has complied data for their three categories of service from the past eight quarter. The data shows that the demand has been fluctuating with regards to each service. All of the company’s other factors (advertising, promotion, competition, etc. that may affect the demand for each service will remain equivalent to what it’s been in the past (Stevenson, 2012). Based on data provided Service A appears to be increasing annual and should increase over the next four quarters. Service B appears to be decreasing annually and displays signs that it will continue to follow a decreasing pattern over the next four quarters. Service C has an inconsistent quarterly pattern; it appears that the pattern of inconsistency will be followed over the next four quarters. Based on data analysis the best method for forecasting Highline Financial Services for the upcoming year would be the Moving Average (McNamara, 2012). The Moving Average offers the lowest Mean Absolute Deviation ( MAD), lowest means squared error (MSE), and the lowest mean absolute percent error (MAPE) of the two choices selected to forecast. The weighted moving average was not utilized due to the amount of data provide. The ability to access ranking to each quarter would be unjust due to lack of knowledge with regards to the start of the first quarter and seasonal trend information. Utilizing Moving Average techniques to project Highline Financial Services’ for the upcoming year isn’t perfect, but based on the data provided I believe will provide a reasonably good estimate. The Moving average is simple to understand and use, and provided a lower mean absolute percent error. More data is required for Mr. Mack to construct a viable financial and personnel plan for the next four quarters. However, the use of the projected demand coupled with qualitative data, and seasonal trends should provide a solid foundation for an accurate forecast. The demand trends for all three services have been and continue to show patterns of oscillation. The reasons for oscillation should be looked into and addressed in order to ensure that the company will maximize profit. References Stevenson,W. (2012). Operations Management (11th ed. ) McGraw-Hill higher Education publication Chapter 3-Power Point. Operations Management (11th ed. ) McGraw-Hill higher Education publication McNamara,C. Operations Management Retrieved from: managementhelp. org/operationsmanagement/index. htm How to cite Module 3, Papers Module 3 Free Essays

Non-Parametric Tests and Its Application in Management free essay sample

In this case, we use what are called nonparametric tests. These tests do not require any specific form for the distribution of the population. s non-parametric methods make fewer assumptions, their applicability is much wider than the corresponding parametric methods. In particular, they may be applied in situations where less is known about the application in  question. Also, due to the reliance on fewer  assumptions, non-parametric methods are  more robust. Another justification for the use of non-parametric methods is simplicity. In certain cases, even when the use of  parametric methods is justified, non-parametric methods may be easier to use. Due both to this simplicity and  to their greater robustness, non-parametric methods are seen by  some statisticians as leaving less room for  improper use and misunderstanding. The wider applicability and increased robustness of non-parametric tests comes at a cost:  in cases where a parametric test would be appropriate, non-parametric tests have less power. We will write a custom essay sample on Non-Parametric Tests and Its Application in Management or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In other words, a larger sample size  can be required to draw conclusions with the same degree  of confidence. Non-parametric or distribution-free inferential  statistical methods are mathematical procedures for  statistical hypothesis testing which, unlike parametric statistics, make no assumptions about the probability distributions of the variables being assessed. When our data is normally distributed, the mean isequal to the median and we use the mean as our measure ofcenter. However, if our data is skewed, then the median is a much better measure of center. Therefore, justlike the Z, t and F tests made inferences about the population mean(s),nonparametric tests make inferences about the population median(s). Given below are the various nonparametric tests: * Chi square(? 2) * Kolmogorov  -Smirnov test * median test * Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of  variance by ranks * Friedman two-way analysis of variance by ranks * Kuipers  test * Mann-Whitney U * Wilcoxon  signed-rank  test * Wilcoxon  matched-pairs  test * Wald-  Wolfowitz  runs  test The details of some of the commonly used nonparametric is given below: The Sign test (for 2 repeated/correlated measures) The sign test is one of the simplest nonparametric tests. It is for use with 2 repeated (or correlated) measures (see the example below), and measurement is assumed to be at least ordinal. For each subject, subtract the 2nd score from the 1st, and write down the sign of the difference. (That is write â€Å"-† if the difference score is negative, and â€Å"+† if it is positive. ) The usual null hypothesis for this test is that there is no difference between the two treatments. If this is so, then the number of + signs (or signs, for that matter) should have a binomial distribution1 with p = . 5, and N = the number of subjects. In other words, the sign test is just a binomial test with + and in place of Head and Tail (or Success and Failure). Large sample sign test The sampling distribution used in carrying out the sign test is a binomial distribution with p =q = . 5. The mean of a binomial distribution is equal to Np, and the variance is equal to Npq. As N increases, the binomial distribution converges on the normal distribution (especially when p = q = . 5). When N is large enough (i. e. , greater than 30 or 50, depending on how conservative one is), it is possible to carry out a z-test version of the sign test as follows: z2 is equal to ? 2 with df = 1. Therefore This formula can be expanded with what Howell (1997) calls â€Å"some not-so-obvious algebra† to yield: Note that X equals the observed number of p-events, and Np equals the expected number of pevents under the null hypothesis. Similarly, N-X equals the observed number of q-events, and Nq = the expected number of q-events under the null hypothesis. Therefore, we can rewrite equation in a more familiar looking format as follows: Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test (for 2 repeated/correlated measures) One obvious problem with the sign test is that it discards a lot of information about the data. It takes into account the direction of the difference, but not the magnitude of the difference between each pair of scores. The Wilcoxon signed-ranks test is another nonparametric test that can be used for 2 repeated (or correlated) measures when measurement is at least ordinal. But unlike the sign test, it does take into account (to some degree, at least) the magnitude of the difference. Let us return to the data used to illustrate the sign test. The 14 difference scores were: -20, -7, -14, -13, -26, +5, -17, -9, -10, -9, -7, +3, +2, -17 If we sort these on the basis of their absolute values (i. e. , disregarding the sign), we get the results shown in Table 3. 2. The statistic T is found by calculating the sum of the positive ranks, and the sum of the negative ranks. T is the smaller of these two sums. In this case, therefore,T = 6. If the null hypothesis is true, the sum of the positive ranks and the sum of the negative ranks are expected to be roughly equal. But if H0 is false, we expect one of the sums to be quite smalland therefore T is expected to be quite small. The most extreme outcome favourable to rejection of H0 is T = 0. Large-sample Wilcoxon signed ranks test The following are known to be true about the sampling distribution of T, the statistic used in the Wilcoxon signed ranks test: If N gt; 50, then the sampling distribution of T is for practical purposes normal. And so, a z-ratio can be computed as follows: Friedman ANOVA This test is sometimes called the Friedman two-way analysis of variance by ranks. It is for use with k repeated (or correlated) measures where measurement is at least ordinal. The null hypothesis states that all k samples are drawn from the same population, or from populations with equal medians. It may be useful at this point to consider what kinds of outcomes are expected if H0 is true. H0 states that all of the samples (columns) are drawn from the same population, or from populations with the same median. If so, then the sums (or means) of the ranks for each of the columns should all be roughly equal, because the ranks 1, 2, and 3 would be expected by chance to appear equally often in each column. In this example, the expected _R for each treatment would be 10 if H0 is true. (In general, the expected sum of ranks for each treatment is N(k +1)/2. ) The Friedman ANOVA assesses the degree to which the observed _Rs depart from the expected _Rs. If the departure is too extreme (or not likely due to chance), one concludes by rejecting H0. The Fr statistic is calculated as follows TESTS OF GOODNESS OF FIT The purpose of the test of goodness of fit is the comparison of the distribution form (shape) of two features in one population or of one feature in two populations. The solution of many statistic problems is simpler, if the analysed feature has a normal distribution. Different statistical analyses require fulfilling the assumptions on the distribution normality of the analysed variable (T-Student tests, analysis of variance, analysis of regression, canonical analysis etc. . That is why we must previously carry out the verification of the distribution character every time we want to apply statistical analyses requiring the data of a determined distribution. Then, the circumstances of applying non-parametric tests of goodness of fit can be as follows: * As a start point for applying some specific models of parametric tests (ve rification of the mean value, variances of the variable distribution etc. , * As one of the elements of the verification of a mathematical model structure, correctness, for example in the case of modelling a real estate market (verification of the model remainders normality distribution), * A comparison of distributions in two different populations in order to draw conclusions on their similarity, * other practical issues, like verification of the dice symmetry. Between non-parametric tests of goodness of fit, we distinguish, among the others, the following: * Chi-square Pearson test, Kolomogorow test, * Kolomogorow-Smirnow test, * Kolomogorow-Lillieforse test, * Shapiro-Wilk test, * Wilcoxon test. Chi-square test of goodness of fit Chi-square test of goodness of fit requires a large market database because of its low power. We can apply it, for example, to examine the distribution of prices of a determined real estate type in a time interval, aiming to verify the assumptions of a s elected parametric test, used to verify, for example, the basic distribution parameters of this variable on a given local arket (mean price, its dispersion and the like). The run of this test can be described as follows: †¢ Classification of the values of the feature X: x1, x2, x3, †¦, xn gathered in a random sample (creation of a distributive series), †¢ Formulation of the zero hypothesis H0: cumulative distribution function of the examined feature is the function F0(x); if the hypothesis H0 is true, the probability pi that the variable X would take a value belonging to the i-th class (gi-1, gi) is: pi = F0(gi) – F0(gi-1). Statistics in this test has the form: it is a measure of differences between experimental ni and theoretical npi sizes of individual classes and it has a chi-square distribution, thus, we compare it with the critical values read off from the tables of this distribution. KRUSKAL-WALLIS TEST When we can assumethat our data is normally distributed and that the population standard deviations are equal, we can testfor a difference among several populations by using the One-way ANOVA F test. However,when ourdatais not normal,orwe aren’t sure if it is, we can use the nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test to compare more than two populationsas long as our data comefroma continuous distribution. In the One-way ANOVA F test, we are testing to see if our population means are equal. Since our data might not necessarily be symmetric in the nonparametric setting, it is better touse the median as the measure of center, and so in theKruskal-Wallis test weare testing to see ifour population medians are equal. Recall the analysis ofvarianceidea: wewritethetotal observed variation in the responses as the sum of two parts,one measuring variation amongthe groups (sum of squares for groups, SSG) and one measuring variation among individual observations withinthe samegroup (sumof squares for error,SSE). The ANOVA F testrejects the null hypothesis that the mean responses are equal in all groups if SSG is large relative to SSE. The idea of the Kruskal-Wallis ranktest isto rank all theresponses fromall groups togetherandthen apply one-way ANOVA to theranks rather than to the original bservations. Ifthere are N observations in all,the ranks are always the whole numbers from1 to N. The total sumofsquares for the ranks is therefore a fixed number no matter what the data are. So wedo not need to look at both SSG and SSE. Although it isn’t obvious without someunpleasant algebra, the Kruskal-Wallistest statistic is essentially just SSGfor the ranks. When SSGis large, that is evidence that the gro ups differ. Draw independent SRSs of sizes n1,n2, ,nIfrom Ipopulations. There are N observations in all. Rank all N observations and let Ribe the sum of the ranks. When the sample sizesniare large and all Ipopulations have the samecontinuous distribution, H has approximately the chi-square distribution with I-1 degrees of freedom. The Kruskal-Wallis testrejects the null hypothesis thatall populationshave thesame distribution when H is large. So liketheWilcoxon rank sumstatistic,theKruskal-Wallistest statistic is based onthe sumsof the ranks for the groups we are comparing. The more different these sumsare, the stronger is the evidence thatresponses are systematically larger in somegroups than in others. As usual, we again assign average ranks to tied observations Advantages of nonparametric tests Siegel and Castellan (1988, p. 35) list the following advantages of nonparametric tests: 1. If the sample size is very small, there may be no alternative to using a nonparametric statistical test unless the nature of the population distribution is known exactly. 2. Nonparametric tests typically make fewer assumptions about the data and may be more relevant to a particular situation. In addition, the hypothesis tested by the nonparametric test may be more appropriate for the research investigation. . Nonparametric tests are available to analyze data which are inherently in ranks as well as data whose seemingly numerical scores have the strength of ranks. That is, the researcher may only be able to say of his or her subjects that one has more or less of the characteristic than another, without being able to say how much more or less. For example, in studying such a variable as anxiety, we may be able to state that subject A is more anxious than subject B without knowing at all exactly how much more anxious A is. If data are inherently in ranks, or even if they can be categorized only as plus or minus (more or less, better or worse), they can be treated by nonparametric methods, whereas they cannot be treated by parametric methods unless precarious and, perhaps, unrealistic assumptions are made about the underlying distributions. 4. Nonparametric methods are available to treat data which are simply classificatory or categorical, i. e. , are measured in a nominal scale. No parametric technique applies to such data. 5. There are suitable nonparametric statistical tests for treating samples made up of observations from several different populations. Parametric tests often cannot handle such data without requiring us to make seemingly unrealistic assumptions or requiring cumbersome computations. 6. Nonparametric statistical tests are typically much easier to learn and to apply than are parametric tests. In addition, their interpretation often is more direct than the interpretation of parametric tests. Disadvantages of nonparametric tests Nonparametric tests do have at least two major disadvantages in comparison to parametric tests. Nonparametric tests are less powerful Because parametric tests use more of the information available in a set of numbers. Parametric tests make use of information consistent with interval scale measurement, whereas parametric tests typically make use of ordinal information only. As Siegel and Castellan (1988) put it, â€Å"nonparametric statistical tests are wasteful. † Second, parametric tests are much more flexible, and allow you to test a greater range of hypotheses. For example, factorial ANOVA designs allow you to test for interactions between variables in a way that is not possible with nonparametric alternatives. There are nonparametric techniques to test for certain kinds of interactions under certain circumstances, but these are much more limited than the corresponding parametric techniques. Therefore, when the assumptions for a parametric test are met, it is generally (but not necessarily always) preferable to use the parametric test rather than a nonparametric test

Prop 8 Elephant in the room Essay

Prop 8 Elephant in the room Essay Prop 8: Elephant in the room Essay In response to the popular slogan: â€Å"Say â€Å"NO† to Prop Hate,† and one random commenter that I’m betting sounds familiar: â€Å"Do any of you who HATE gays, and yes, that’s the correct word, realize that gay marriage has been legal in CA for 4 months and has the world ended? Have all these horrible things happened? Has marriage been destroyed†¦ oh, no, it hasn’t. Weird, right? Get yourselves educated. We need to stop spreading the ignorance. Equality for all! And realize there are gay Christian people." There are plenty of people in my life who know I love them (well at least they know I don’t hate them,) but also know that I disagree with the choices they are making. They know where I stand because of my religious affiliations. I think the reason these people include me in their lives is because they know I can differentiate between them and those actions I don’t approve of. I love it that these people don’t rely on my approval of their every deed as basis for our friendship. (And vice versa.) I've noticed a commonality- maybe those associated with AA could define it better: people who choose to act on inappropriate feelings (addicts, sociopaths- people who can choose their actions vs. people with ticks†¦) have not only an interesting rationalization for their behavior, they also have the manipulative tactic of implying that, to the ignorant onlooker, there is no difference between actions and the people making the actions. I'll illustrate. A kleptomaniac steals something. I think that’s bad. But they have convinced themselves, and many others, that the very desire they have to steal is evidence of it’s validity as acceptable behavior. And to top it off, they twist my words, and call my disdain for their behavior, hatred for them. Here’s a point of disagreement between me and most people who have deviant sexual habits. A person who feels the need to steal, was born with that desire, and is only happy when stealing, can’t get away with it. Society won’t let them. Not only that, but most feel the need to change their behavior to be acceptable to the majority of society and to God. They don’t want to be defined as kleptomaniacs. The only difference I see between people with destructive tendencies and people who call themselves gay, is that â€Å"gay people† have numbed their consciences, and the conscienses of many others, to the point that many no longer feel the need to change their behavior to be acceptable to the majority of society and to God. Some have even convinced themselves that because they have these evil tendencies, God must have made them that way and wants them to act on those tendencies. God didn’t create a â€Å"gay person† any more than he created a â€Å"kleptomaniac.† I've heard the argument that without sex with someone of the same gender, a gay person can’t experience love in their lives. Maybe sex isn’t what love is all about. Maybe denying evil tendencies (who doesn’t have them) is what life is about. I've heard stories of wonderful people who took their own lives because they couldn't live with their burdens. What have we been taught about burdens? What have we been taught about enduring to the end? When have we been taught to pray for God to take away these burdens fully expecting Him to grant our wish? Whatever happend to Thy will be done? If living with these particular tendencies is your lot in life- embrace them as your trials, and use them to make you stronger- like any of the carnal desires all of us have! Enough playing the victim card. So you are embarrassed. So you wish you were like everyone else. We are ALL embarrassed by our various less-than-righteous inclinations. We ALL have the tendency to look around and think everyone else has it easier. We also know Who has felt every last bit of pain and suffering we have felt, and have, every last one of us, been given the promise that we can feel joy by coming unto Him. I’m going to be honest. I loved a guy who had no instincts to kiss me, and

Be sensitive; get the details right - Emphasis

Be sensitive; get the details right Be sensitive; get the details right Its always important to check over and authenticate the key details in anything you write before you send it out. But if theres ever a time when its absolutely vital, its when addressing sensitive matters. Gordon Brown knows this now better than anyone. At a time of year when everyone is particularly conscious of the lives and lot of soldiers, it is especially mortifying that he apparently sent out a handwritten condolence note with misspellings, including of the late young mans name. Whether its your unfortunate duty to be penning a letter denying a loan, rejecting a proposal or giving someone their notice, you must remember that the recipient will probably already be on the defensive. Any typos or unchecked errors will just seem like insult piled on top of injury. So, be it in the spirit of not burning bridges, of good press, or merely the milk of human kindness get the details right.